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Few things in the history of automotive technology can have progressed quite as rapidly as the lithium-ion battery pack, variations of which power all EVs on the roads today.

When Tesla broke the mould in 2013 with the Model S, its battery comprised many thousands of individual '18650' cylindrical cells. The name is derived from the dimensions of each one, 18mm in diameter and 65mm long, so not unlike a domestic battery in shape.

An individual 18650 cell generates only a few volts but connecting them together in series gives the hundreds of volts needed for an EV traction battery. Grouping them in parallel provides capacity and increases current. Choosing the 18650 format was a clever move because it was already an industry-standard battery, but there are other formats too.

One such is pouch cells. The very first Nissan Leaf used pouch cells and, in that sense, the new Porsche Cayenne EV has something in common with it.

The Leaf was launched globally in 2010 and arrived in the UK two years later. It was capable of around 70-80 miles on a single charge of its 24kWh battery, which comprised 192 pouch cells, four in each of 48 modules.

The Cayenne battery is also made up of 192 larger pouch cells, 32 of them in each of six modules. But it's a world away from the little Leaf battery when it comes to capacity: its 113kWh gives the high-performance SUV a range of over 370 miles.

How are these incredibly powerful batteries made? Porsche assembles the modules at its Smart Battery Shop at Horná Streda in Slovakia using cells made in Europe. Once the cells have been manufactured, they are shipped into the plant for installation into the modules. A supplier equips the finished modules with high-voltage cables and associated connectors and an external contractor assembles the six complete modules into the high-voltage battery pack.

Assembly of the modules takes place in immaculately clean conditions, with strict standards protecting the components from electrostatic discharge. The pouch cells are tested and prepped and then stacked on top of one another with highly accurate alignment of the connectors.

These stacks are inserted into cell carriers and the cell tabs (connectors) are positioned and joined by automated laser welding. A foam material is added to stabilise and protect the stacks and thermally conductive materials inserted between the cells to aid heat dissipation.

After electrical, function and dimensional tests, insulation measurements and a thorough visual inspection, the modules are shipped to the contractor for final battery assembly. Production data for each module is recorded and Porsche says it will be able to trace each one even after many years.

Finally, before assembly into the cars, batteries undergo performance testing in Porsche's own analysis centre, where the focus is on longevity and charging capability.

While nameplates can sometimes seem eternal, it’s rare for a car to remain unchanged for more than a decade.

Manufacturers redesign platforms to incorporate the latest advances in weight-saving materials and safety, and they tweak sheet metal to lure buyers into showrooms with the promise of something fresh. But this story is about the models that bucked the trend, and went on for a very long time.

Volkswagen discontinued the reborn Beetle in 2019, which has reminded us all, lest we need it, that the original Beetle was an extremely long-lived car indeed. Here we take a look at all the longest-surviving cars, and where the original Beetle stacks up. We start at the ‘shortest’ and work our way upwards…

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Peugeot 205 (1983-1998) – 15 YEARS

Peugeot began designing the 205 in 1978 as a replacement for the aging 104. The model had to be light, easy to build, and use numerous existing parts to keep development costs in check. Peugeot had somewhat reluctantly absorbed Citroën and Chrysler’s entire European division so it couldn’t afford to make a financial mistake.

The 205 made its debut in early 1983 as a four-door hatchback. It immediately became one of the brand’s best-sellers. The line-up quickly grew with the addition of a two-door hatchback, a convertible, a small van and, of course, the popular GTi (pictured). The Rallye and T16 variants helped reel enthusiasts into showrooms.

Starting in the mid-1990s, value became the 205’s biggest selling point. Special edition models kept it afloat until production ended on the last day of 1998.

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Mercedes-Benz SL (R107, 1971-1989) – 18 YEARS

Few roadsters exude timeless elegance like the R107-generation Mercedes-Benz SL. With an interior fit for a king, the SL occupied the top spot in the Mercedes line-up for nearly two decades. It remains the only SL ever to spawn a four-seat coupé with a fixed roof.

The body style (named SLC) retired in 1981 to make space for the W126-based SEC.

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Ford Model T (1908-1927) – 19 YEARS

The Ford Model T deserves credit as the first mass-produced car. It was much more basic than the expensive, luxurious models built in the same era, but it was cheap enough for almost anyone with a full-time job to afford one. Pricing started at US$500 in 1917, which represents about US$9600 (£7100) today. Used examples cost even less.

Crucially, the Model T forever changed the notion of free time by giving millions of Americans the opportunity to explore the world around them without riding a horse or taking a train. Production ended after Ford manufactured 15 million units in 12 countries.

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Suzuki Jimny (1998-2018) – 20 YEARS

The pocket-sized, pretension free Jimny 4x4 has been delighting the world since 1970. The first generation lasted 11 years, and the second 17. The third generation only died in 2018, after 20 years.

Power ranged from 65bhp all the way up to a mighty 86bhp – but what it lost in power it more than made up with a switchable ultra-low range gearbox and featherlight weight of around 1000kg (2200lb). This made it practically unstoppable and utterly charming to boot. The latest model is a worthy follow up, and is somehow even shorter.

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Fiat Panda (1980-2003) – 23 YEARS

The original Fiat Panda drew inspiration from the Citroën 2CV and the Renault 4. Fiat asked its development department to come up with a simple, robust car with nothing superfluous inside or under the hood, and it gave Italdesign the same set of instructions for the exterior. Everyone involved took that mission to heart. Early examples came with an air-cooled two-cylinder engine from the 126 and often-criticised leaf springs out back.

The Panda took on many identities during its long lifetime. Fiat offered it as a 4x4, a van with plastic body extensions and an electric car with two seats. A total of 4.5 million examples were built in Turin. Even 14 years after production stopped, the original Panda remains a common sight in Italy and in certain parts of France.

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Peugeot 206 (1998-present) – 27 YEARS & COUNTING

Peugeot introduced the 206 in 1998 to finally replace the 205. The line-up was even bigger than before. The 206 came as a hatchback with two or four doors, a station wagon named SW, a convertible with a power-retractable hardtop and, in some markets, a four-door saloon.

Tallying up score cards from every factory that manufactured the 206 paints an illustrious production run of about 10 million units. The model’s most popular markets were Europe and Latin America.

The 206’s life cycle was full of unexpected turns. When Dacia’s success took Peugeot by surprise, executives tried surfing the low-cost wave by selling a stripped-down 206 named 206+ as a cheaper alternative to the then-new 207. In China, the 206 mutated into the Citroën C2 to provide the brand with an entry-level model. Today, the 206 is still being produced in Iran.

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Morris Minor (1948-1971) – 23 YEARS

First unveiled at London’s 1948 Earl’s Court Motor Show, the Minor this was a primary way Britain got back on the road after the Second World War. While performance was sedate even by the standards of the time, steering and handling was impressive. It later spawned van, wagon and convertible versions, and more powerful engines that arrived later helped a lot.

A cool 1.4 million examples were built until 1971.

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Range Rover (1970-1996) – 26 YEARS

Less utilitarian than the Series II, the Range Rover was a new kind of Land Rover aimed at buyers seeking a leisure vehicle that could go almost anywhere. It hit the market as the popularity of SUVs surged, which partly explains its unusually long production run.

The Range Rover progressively moved upmarket during the 1980s, and it became a common sight at posh ski stations in America after making its US debut at the 1987 Los Angeles Auto Show.

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Fiat 126 (1972-2000) – 28 YEARS

The 126 succeeded the 500 at the very bottom of the Fiat line-up, though the brand sold both concurrently until 1975. It wore a more modern design than its predecessor, but everything under the sheet metal looked familiar. It offered four seats in spite of its tiny dimensions and its two-cylinder engine lived in the boot.

While the 126 never reached the 500’s popularity in western Europe due to its outdated design, it unexpectedly became the people’s car of Poland. It earned the nickname “Maluch,” which translates to “toddler.” 126 production totalled 4.6 million examples, including 3.3 million built in the Tychy factory in Poland that now produces the modern-day 500.

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Jeep Wagoneer/Grand Wagoneer (1963-1991) – 28 YEARS

The Jeep Wagoneer pioneered the luxury SUV segment. It was a monumentally important model for the brand because it shared no parts or styling cues with the CJ, which evolved from the Willys used during WWII. It offered enough space for an entire family, and enough ground clearance to let users make the most of its four-wheel drive system.

Like the Range Rover, the Wagoneer (later called Grand Wagoneer) gradually moved upmarket during its production run. Jeep notably worked on eliminating noise and vibrations inside the cabin to make it less truck-like. Production ended in 1991 when Jeep replaced the Grand Wagoneer with the first Grand Cherokee.

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Volkswagen Jetta (mk2, 1984-2013) – 29 YEARS

Volkswagen began producing the second-generation Jetta in China in 1991, a year before it ended European production. While early models were built from complete knock-down (CKD) kits, the FAW-Volkswagen joint-venture began manufacturing the Jetta using locally-sourced parts in 1995.

The second-generation Jetta went through three different front-end designs, each inspired by the Volkswagen design language of its respective era. It’s still commonly used as a taxi in some parts of China, including Beijing. VW recently announced that Jetta will become a stand-alone brand in China.

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Toyota Century (mk1, 1967-1997) – 30 YEARS

Toyota introduced the first-generation Century long before its Lexus division startled Mercedes-Benz and BMW with the original LS. Built largely by hand, the Century was designed for Japan’s most discerning motorists.

For an old school saloon, it was surprisingly high-tech. It received automatic air conditioning in 1971, and gained a fibre-optic multiplex communication system in 1982.

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Peugeot 404 (1960-1991) – 31 YEARS

Autocar praised the Peugeot 404’s road manners when we tested the saloon in 1965. It turns out the Pininfarina-designed 404 excelled off the pavement, too. Its legendary robustness earned it a cult following across Africa.

European production stopped in 1975, but the last 404 built in Kenya wore a 1991 registration. Its successor, the 504, enjoyed a similarly long career.

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Volkswagen Santana (1981-2012) – 31 YEARS

The Volkswagen Santana was one of the first European cars manufactured in China. The honour could have gone to the Citroën CX, but the Chinese government awarded the large car contract to Volkswagen because it deemed the CX too complicated.

The Santana helped Chinese motorists acquire a taste for large saloons with a generous amount of rear leg room. The numerous variants (including the Santana 2000, Santana 3000 and Santana Vista) served as private cars, taxis, police cars and even government cars for officials not important enough to receive a long-wheelbase Audi.

A true world car, the Santana also joined the Nissan line-up in Japan and even received Ford emblems in Brazil and Argentina. The nameplate lives on in China on a much newer saloon.

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Lada 2105 (1980-2012) – 32 YEARS

Lada elected to update the Fiat 124-derived 2101, its very first car, instead of developing a successor from scratch. The four-cylinder engine carried on with only minor changes, but the 2105 inaugurated a new look characterised by square headlights and a plastic grille.

Lada exported the 2105 to many nations including Canada, where whitewall tires upped its style quotient, and the UK, where it wore the Riva nameplate. With over 14 million examples produced, Lada’s 124-based saloon remains one of the best-selling cars of all time. Put the numbers together with the Fiat 124 itself, and production totalled in the region of 20 million, making the model the second-largest produced car in history.

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Fiat Uno (1980-2013) – 33 YEARS

Last sold new in 1995, the Fiat Uno is a distant memory in Europe. It’s still a late-model car in Brazil, where production ended in 2013. Called Mille during its last years on the market, the Brazilian-spec Uno received a new look that brought it up-to-date with the design trends of the early 2000s. Little changed underneath, however.

Fiat ended Uno production when the Brazilian government announced every car built after January 1, 2014, needed front airbags and ABS brakes. Fittingly, the Uno-turned-Mille went out with a limited-edition model named Grazie Mille.

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Renault 4 (1961-1994) – 33 YEARS

The Renault 4 was the right car at the right time. Designed to replace the 4CV, it rendered its predecessor completely obsolete with a front-engine, front-wheel drive layout and a large boot accessed through a practical hatch. It was everything a people’s car should be: affordable, reliable and easy to mend.

Renault made countless little tweaks to the 4. Its bonnet wore four grille designs, and its engine bay housed a series of increasingly powerful four-cylinders. Its basic body never changed significantly, however. Renault built over 8 million examples of the 4 in a dizzying array of nations including France, Ireland, Morocco, Algeria, Yugoslavia, Chile and Uruguay.

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Land Rover 90/110/Defender (1983-2016) – 33 YEARS

The Defender traces its roots to the very first Land Rover built in 1948. Introduced as the 90 and the 110, respectively, the off-roaders replaced the Series III with a familiar design, a permanent four-wheel drive system and additional creature comforts. They gained in usability without sacrificing the off-road capacity buyers demanded.

The law is the one obstacle the Defender can’t tow out of the way or simply drive over. Production ended in early 2016 because looming regulations would have forced Land Rover to make expensive modifications to the design. The rumours claiming production would continue abroad were false, so the Defender now has a spot in the pantheon of automotive history. The new Gerry McGovern-designed Defender should arrive in showrooms in the next few months.

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Maruti Suzuki Gypsy (1985-2019) – 33 YEARS

This tiny Indian-built pickup truck was derived from the Jimny SJ40 jeep, itself first launched in 1982. It had all the indestructible, go-anywhere nature of the Jimny, which won it legions of fans among India’s police and military, especially in the country’s mountainous northern areas. Simple and spartan, it was originally powered by a 45bhp 1.0-litre engine, a 60bhp 1.3-litre version called the Gypsy King arrived in 1996, with fuel injection and 80bhp arriving in 2000.

Production has only recently finished, defeated it seems by upcoming Indian crash-test regulations and the need for it to have airbags and ABS. Plus India’s army has started buying the larger and much more modern Safari Storme from rival Tata, meaning the writing was on the wall.

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Peugeot 405 (1987-present) – 38 YEARS & COUNTING

The Peugeot 405 has seen more of the world than the average European citizen. From its humble beginnings in France, it travelled across the Atlantic in an unsuccessful attempt to conquer the American market. It became the last Peugeot sold new in the US.

The French company had better luck in Iran, where its Pininfarina-designed ex-Car of the Year remains in production today. Interestingly, Peugeot briefly sold a rear-wheel drive 405 named Roa equipped with a Hillman Avenger-sourced four-cylinder engine.

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Toyota Land Cruiser 70 Series (1984-present) – 41 YEARS & COUNTING

Unlike Land Rover, which axed the Defender in 2016, Toyota managed to make a sound business case for keeping the Land Cruiser 70 Series production line open. It enjoys unrivalled popularity in inhospitable parts of the world, where demand for a tough off-roader with a turbodiesel V8 is as high as ever.

The line-up includes two- and four-door pickups as well as two- and four-door SUVs. It’s built in Portugal, purely for export only, mostly to Africa.

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Volkswagen Golf (MK1, 1974-2009) – 35 YEARS

Volkswagen’s South African division decided to continue building the first-generation Golf as a cheaper, smaller alternative to the then-new second-generation model. It built the two hatchbacks under the same roof.

The company’s marketing department renamed the first-generation model Citi Golf to differentiate it from its newest sibling. Volkswagen of South Africa only offered the five-door model, and early cars were exclusively available in bright red, bright yellow, or bright blue. Stylists updated the Citi Golf several times, though the basic shape stayed the same until the end of production.

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Bristol 603 (1976-2011) – 35 YEARS

Bristol created the 603 by blending British elegance with American muscle. The coupé remained a niche model throughout its entire production run, but its following was big enough to keep Bristol open long after many of its rivals closed down. The company went into administration in 2011. A resuscitated Bristol is currently planning a comeback with a 1950s-esque roadster named Bullet, though we’ve been waiting a while for it.

Interestingly, Bristol sourced lights from a variety of cars as it updated the 603. The second-generation Volkswagen Scirocco, the Bedford CF2, the Opel Senator B, and the Audi A4 Avant all donated some of their lighting elements to keep the big coupé looking fresh throughout its production run.

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Renault 12 (1969-2006) – 37 YEARS

Renault executives believed the 12 would become a true world car sold in all four corners of the globe. Their prediction was surprisingly accurate. The 12’s main markets were in western Europe, but it also joined the Renault line-up in eastern Europe, the Americas and Australia.

Notably, it was the backbone of the Dacia brand for decades. Production continued in Romania for 26 years after the last 12 rolled off the assembly line in France. It spawned several market-specific models including a sporty coupé named 1410, a liftback called 1320 and a pickup offered with two or four doors. The original Dacia Logan finally replaced the 12 as a cheap, basic form of transportation.

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Mercedes-Benz G-Class (1979-2017) – 38 YEARS

The Mercedes-Benz G-Class has fulfilled the automotive equivalent of the American dream, transcending borders and social classes as it moved from the battlefield to Beverly Hills. It has evolved from a rudimentary off-roader to one of the most expensive members of the Mercedes line-up, one synonymous with luxury, performance and unabashed decadence.

The model only just died in 2017 – the all-new G-Class has styling that hasn’t changed much, but it does feature brand-new underpinnings and a much more high-tech interior.

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Peugeot 504 (1968-2006) – 38 YEARS

After winning the coveted European Car of the Year award in 1969, the Peugeot 504 followed its predecessor’s path by providing durable transportation to motorists in emerging markets. It became known as the king of the road in some parts of Africa. It was also built in Argentina and in China, among other countries. Production of the updated, Nigerian-spec model ended in 2006.

Former Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad auctioned off his personal 1977 504 in 2010. It sold for US$2.5 million, making it one of the most expensive Peugeots ever. The proceeds from the sale were allegedly used to build low-income housing.

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Hillman Hunter (1966-2005) – 39 YEARS

First produced by the Rootes Group in 1966, the Hunter went onto become one of Britain’s best-selling cars during its 13-year UK lifespan, though is largely forgotten today. Shortly after it was first produced, Iran’s national car company signed a deal to produce the car from knock-down kits supplied by Rootes.

The resulting car was named the Paykan (pictured), and quickly became known as Iran’s national car, with widespread ownership and usage as taxis and police cars. With the remnants of Rootes now owned by Peugeot, full-assembly started in 1985, with the car powered by engines from the Peugeot 504. Hopelessly outdated, the model was in effect replaced by a model called the Samand based on the (somewhat) more modern Peugeot 405.

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Mini (1959-2000) – 41 YEARS

With 5.3 million examples built, the original Mini is to England’s automotive industry what The Beatles are to British music. Alec Issigonis’ engineering brilliance sent it from a design sketch to a production model in just 27 months.

Fitting four passengers in a tiny car was no small feat, but its most innovative design feature was under the bonnet. The British Motor Corporation (BMC) dropped a transversally-mounted, water-cooled four-cylinder engine right over a four-speed manual gearbox, a packaging solution which significantly reduced the drivetrain’s footprint.

The Mini influenced city cars and supercars alike. When Lamborghini couldn’t fit a 4.0-litre V12 behind the Miura’s passenger compartment, an engineer stepped out to the parking lot and glanced under the bonnet of a Mini for inspiration.

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Citroën 2CV (1948-1990) – 42 YEARS

The Oxford English Dictionary could use a picture of the Citroën 2CV to define the noun “anachronism.” The Tin Snail lived decades beyond its expiration date, outlasting intended successors like the Dyane and the Visa. The secret of its longevity wasn’t a mysterious elixir Citroën sprayed in the carburettor of each car; it was sheer simplicity.

Every part of the 2CV embodied function-over-form design, down to the flip-up front windows and the speedometer-driven wipers in early cars. It was one of the rare unpretentious cars with nothing to prove. Citroën built 5.1 million examples of the 2CV, including 1.2 million vans. That number swells to over 9 million when we factor in 2CV-derived cars like the Ami series, the Dyane and the Mehari.

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Vaz 2121/Lada Niva/ Lada 4x4 (1977-present) – 48 YEARS & COUNTING

Lada developed the Niva to fill demand for a rugged, no-nonsense off-roader capable of tackling Siberia. While it shared some parts with the Fiat-derived 2101, the Niva was designed entirely in-house. Light, compact and affordable, it became an overnight hit – and Lada’s most exportable product.

Lada is hardly synonymous with quality, but the Niva was solid enough to survive a decade as a support vehicle for the Russian base in Antarctica. Production continues today, and it's just had a minor facelift for 2020. But the end is near; we expect a new model to arrive in 2025.

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Hindustan Ambassador (1958-2007) – 49 YEARS

Hindustan Motors introduced the Ambassador after purchasing the rights to the Morris Oxford Series III from British Motor Corporation (BMC). We doubt anyone involved in the deal imagined the Oxford’s basic design would last for half a century. The Ambassador changed little during its life cycle, with the exception of the Avigo introduced in 2004 with a more contemporary look.

Peugeot paid £10 million for the Ambassador brand in 2017 in a bid to help its return to the Indian market after a 23-year hiatus.

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Morgan 4/4 (1955-2019) – 64 YEARS

The rules of basic automotive evolution dictate Morgan should have phased out the 4/4 at some point in the 1960s and introduced a replacement. The British marque boldly bucked every trend in the industry when it decided to continue building the roadster. While it often made minor changes over time to improve drivability and usability, the throwback design looks like it was frozen in the 1950s.

The 4/4 has used Ford engines since the model was revived 1955, but Morgan briefly offered it with a Fiat-sourced four-cylinder during the 1980s. Emissions rules around the car's Ford Sigma engine led the car to leave production.

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Volkswagen Type 2 (1949-2013) – 64 YEARS

The Volkswagen Type 2 (affectionately called Bus or Kombi) was born when the brand’s Dutch importer asked permission to distribute the rudimentary Plattenwagen used to transport parts around the Wolfsburg factory. Europeans used the Bus for work, while Americans loved the camper versions.

The Caravelle/Transporter replaced both variants, but production continued in Latin American markets like Mexico and Brazil. In its later years, the Bus ditched its air-cooled flat-four in favour of an 79bhp water-cooled straight-four. Water-cooled models wore a radiator up front.

The van sold well in Brazil even in the early 2010s, but Volkswagen preferred ending its career than spending money on fitting it with airbags and ABS brakes to comply with then-new regulations. The last 600 examples built were part of a special edition named 'Last Edition' and sold exclusively in Brazil. Production totalled over 10 million.

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Volkswagen Beetle (1938-2003) – 65 YEARS

And the longest-living car is… the Volkswagen Beetle. Its popularity extends well beyond the realm of classic cars. It’s a genuine icon everywhere in the world, one that’s at least as recognisable as the Coca-Cola logo.

Its legacy was unexpected; the Volkswagen simply needed to put Germany on wheels. Crafted to put Nazi Germany on wheels in the late 30s, the Second World War stalled its birth. It almost became British or American after the war but none of the UK's carmakers wanted it, and nor did Ford. “The vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirements of a motor car,” wrote a British official. “It is quite unattractive to the average buyer. To build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise.”

But it prospered nonetheless as Europe got back onto its feet and in desperate need for cars. Hitler’s Strength-Through-Joy Wagen became a cornerstone of 60s flower-power culture, which was quite probably not what he had in mind. Stiffer emissions rules finally did for the Beetle. Production ended in Mexico in 2003 with a retro-inspired limited-edition model named Última Edición. Over 21 million examples of the Beetle were built in no less than 15 countries.

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Alfa Romeo will launch a new family hatchback to rival the Volkswagen Golf in the next few years - its first since the Giulietta was axed in 2020.

The new C-segment car will be based on parent company Stellantis's new STLA One architecture - which it will share with the same-sized, next-generation Peugeot 308 and Vauxhall Astra.

The platform, previously known as STLA Medium, is a 'multi-energy' structure that can accommodate both electric and combustion-engined drivetrains, and Alfa Romeo said it will offer both to broaden market appeal.

Confirmation of the new hatchback comes following the Stellantis investor day presentation last week, at which it outlined an ambitious plan to launch 110 new models globally, across all its brands and with a mix of powertrains, by 2030.

During the presentation, Stellantis's European boss, Emanuele Cappellano, confirmed that Alfa Romeo was developing a new mid-sized SUV to replace today's Tonale, along with an exclusive new sports car from its Bottega Fuoriserie bespoke division.

A brief teaser of an unidentified model could be the first look at the new Alfa Romeo hatchback, which the Italian brand said will "build on icons such as the 147 and Giulietta".

The Tonale successor and the hatchback are expected to share a basic footprint and much of their technology and drivetrain hardware - mirroring the relationship between the hatches and SUVs that Alfa's sibling brands sell.

The electric derivatives will be equipped with 800V hardware for rapid-charging capabilities, while the ICE versions will likely use the same array of mild- and plug-in hybrid systems available elsewhere in Stellantis's arsenal.

All could be offered with the STLA platform's steer-by-wire capability, as previewed recently by the radical Peugeot Polygon concept.

Alfa Romeo hasn't yet given a timeframe for the new models, but the Tonale – which unusually for a Stellantis model uses its own platform and drivetrains – will be up for replacement in 2029.

More precise details on the brand's mid-term strategy haven't been given, but it has today (26 May) issued a statement to clarify its plans following the Stellantis presentation: "Looking ahead, Alfa Romeo will leverage Stellantis's global scale while differentiating its offering to continue developing authentic Alfa Romeos, further strengthening its distinctive positioning as a unique and iconic brand."

The new hatchback, SUV and sports car will be sold alongside the little Junior crossover – itself due a refresh soon – with the current Giulia and Stelvio scheduled to end production next year.

Alfa Romeo had previously been almost ready to unwrap an electric replacement for the Stelvio but put the project on ice last year in response to wavering uptake for premium and sporting EVs. A long-mooted electric Giulia was expected to be close behind using the same mechanicals. 

Now the company appears to have gone back to the drawing board entirely on replacements for its two premium flagship models, saying only that it's "studying solutions to continue operating in the D-segment with new interpretations of the current line-up made up of Giulia and Stelvio".

It said it aims to remain "true to its performance-driven DNA while adapting to market evolution" and that any Giulia and Stelvio successors would "leverage flexible platforms" - no doubt the modular STLA architecture that can span from the B- to the D-segment.

"Further details will be communicated at a later stage," it said about potential larger models.

Mercedes is not a brand particularly known for controversy, at least compared with some we could mention.

It has, however, had its moments, producing cars which certainly gave people pause for thought.

Here, then, are 30 models which could, using the term very broadly, be described as at least partly controversial, arranged for your pleasure in chronological order.

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Mercedes 35hp (1900)

The very first Mercedes was proposed to Daimler by one of its dealers, Emil Jellinek-Mercedes (1853-1918), who named it – and his race team and even, weirdly, himself – after his young daughter (1889-1929).

Designed by Wilhelm Maybach (1846-1929), the 35hp was light and powerful, and had a remarkably low centre of gravity for the time. It was such a fast road car, and did so well in competition, that the French journalist and motorsport pioneer Paul Meyan (1852-1938) was moved to write, “We have entered the Mercedes era.”

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Mercedes-Simplex (1902)

Wilhelm Maybach followed up the 35hp with the first of several Simplex models, so named because they were simpler to operate than their predecessor. With 40hp, it was even faster, and although less powerful versions were later added the last, introduced in 1909, was rated at a mighty 65hp.

Emperior Wilhelm II (1859-1941) was an enthusiast, joking with Maybach that his new model was “not as simple as that, you know,” while American tycoon William K. Vanderbilt (1849-1920) owned a Simplex which still exists, and is believed today to be the oldest Mercedes in existence.

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Mercedes 75hp (1907)

The first big controversy within Daimler was the departure of Wilhelm Maybach. After a dispute, he left the company he had joined before it started building cars and was replaced as technical boss by Paul Daimler (1869-1945).

Maybach’s final contribution to the firm was the design of its first six-cylinder engine. In 10.2-litre form, it first appeared in January 1907 in the car then known as the 75hp, though two years later it was renamed 39/80hp. A 9.5-litre version appeared later in 1907 in the 65hp, which became the 37/70hp.

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Mercedes-Knight (1910)

After a decade of producing Mercedes models with its own engines, it must have seemed shocking when Daimler introduced a car with a unit developed by someone else. The someone else in question was the American Charles Yale Knight (1868-1940), whose sleeve-valve design was highly favoured at the time, and used by several manufacturers.

The first Mercedes-Knight was the 4.0-litre 16/40hp of 1910, and was followed two years later by the similar 10/30hp and 25/65hp. Their engines were very quiet, but they were also hard both to build and to maintain. This, along with limited development potential, led to Daimler giving up the idea in 1924.

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Mercedes 18/100 (1914)

Although we are concentrating mainly on cars developed largely for road use, it seems to make an exception in the case of the 18/100 racer which competed in the French Grand Prix in July 1914. This event was essentially a battle between France and Germany, represented by Peugeot and Mercedes respectively.

Peugeot put up a magnificent fight, but in the end all the honours went to Mercedes, which took the top three places. The home crowd was chastened by defeat at the hands of a nation which would become its wartime enemy less than a month later.

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Mercedes 28/95 (1914)

Appropriately enough for the builder of the car which won Europe’s greatest race of 1914, Daimler introduced an innovative and very powerful road-going model in the same year. Its 7.3-litre straight six engine had an overhead camshaft (not exactly new, but still very unusual at the time) and produced no less than 90bhp.

Production was abandoned during the First World War, but resumed when peace returned, and continued until 1924.

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Mercedes 24/110/160hp (1924)

Having taken over from Wilhelm Maybach many years before, Paul Daimler resigned in 1922 and was replaced by Ferdinand Porsche (1875-1951). Porsche’s early work in the top technical role included developing two very grand cars. The complicated names of the 6.3-litre 24/110/160hp and the 3.9-litre 15/70/110hp were based on their taxable horsepower, their actual horsepower without supercharging and their actual horsepower with supercharging.

But it wasn’t just about the engines. According to a rather bumptious Daimler press release of the time, the “design and technical execution of both chassis and coachwork represent a tremendous step forward in terms of the series production of the motor vehicle”.

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Mercedes 8/38hp (1926)

Daimler and Benz, the great rivals in the German motor industry, established a ‘community of interest’ in 1924, and merged two years later. The combined company was called Daimler-Benz, but from now on its cars would be called Mercedes-Benz.

The first model with this name was the 8/38hp, and in view of what had gone before it was amazingly conventional, with a 2.0-litre sidevalve (or flathead) engine. Customer choice, however, was considerable. Offered initially as a two- or four-door saloon or an open tourer, the number of available body styles would reach 13 in 1928.

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Mercedes Nürburg (1928)

The Nürburg models were named after the recently completed Nürburgring race track, where a prototype had been driven for 20,000km in just 13 days. Despite this, and the fact that their engines in some cases measured as much as 5.0 litres, they were not performance cars but grand luxury vehicles a world away from the little 8/38.

They were also the first series-produced Mercedes cars with eight-cylinder engines, and were sometimes referred to as Nürburg 8 (the figure being embossed with gold on the cover page of early catalogues).

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Mercedes SSK (1928)

The SSK (for Super Sport Kurz, the last word meaning ‘short’ in reference to its wheelbase) was the ultimate road-going version of the Model S, a series intended for both private and competition use. Its supercharged 7.1-litre straight eight engine was steadily developed to the point where it produced around 250bhp in 1929, and it was wondrously successful in motorsport.

The SSKL, a lighter derivative of the same car with up to 300bhp, was developed primarily for racing, and achieved victory in the hands of such heroes as Rudolf Caracciola (1901-1959), Hans Stuck (1900-1978) and Manfred von Brauchitsch (1905-2003).

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Grosser Mercedes 770 (1930)

The first Grosser, or ‘Grand’, Mercedes was powered by a 7.7-litre engine which produced 150bhp in naturally-aspirated form, or 200bhp for the benefit of those who were prepared to extra for a supercharger, as 104 of the car’s 117 wealthy buyers did.

For rather more money, customers could even specify armour-plated bodywork, an offer taken up by Japan’s Emperor Hirohito (1901-1989). His car was returned in 1971 and put on display in the Mercedes-Benz Museum in Stuttgart.

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Ponton Mercedes (1953)

Mercedes cars of the immediate post-War era looked more or less as they would have done if they were sold in the 1930s. This tendency was blown out of the water in 1953, when Mercedes introduced the series codenamed W120. It’s nicknamed ponton because of its body style, which had what might unkindly be described as slab sides, and nothing resembling the running boards of the past.

The 180 D of 1954 had a diesel engine, which was unusual at the time but not new. The pre-ponton 260 D launched in 1936 had one too, as had earlier commercial vehicles. The Ponton Mercedes was a key model in helping the company return to success after the war years.

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Mercedes 300 SL (1954)

Developed at the suggestion of the American Mercedes importer Max Hoffman (1904-1981), the 300 SL caused a sensation. This was largely because of its coupé body, and particularly the gullwing doors attached to it, but the close mechanical resemblance to the W194 sports race which made its debut in 1952.

The coupé bodywork was abandoned in favour of a roadster in 1957, and from 1955 to 1963 Mercedes also produced the 190 SL, which was nearly as pretty as the 300 SL but very much slower.

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Mercedes Fintail (1959)

The W111 was the first Mercedes with what would become a classic look for the brand, with tall, vertical headlight units on either side of a prominent grille. At the back, there was a shorter-lived styling cue – tailfins which, though extremely modest by American standards of the time, were prominent in European terms.

All the early Fintail cars had six-cylinder engines, but the fins appeared on the four-cylinder W110 series in 1961. They began to look old-fashioned later in the decade, and were abandoned entirely in 1968.

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Grosser Mercedes 600 (1964)

Introduced 34 years after the first Grosser, the 600 was powered by the first V8 engine ever fitted to a road-going Mercedes. Standard equipment included air suspension, central locking and electronic heating and ventilation – nothing special today, but a phenomenal specification for a car launched in the early years of the Beatles.

2677 examples were built before production ended in 1981. Of these, 429 were Pullman limousines, and 59 the even more exclusive landaulets. A particularly special landaulet, with a raised roof among other unique features, was built in 1965 for Giovanni Montini (1897-1978), better known as Pope Paul VI.

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Mercedes C 111 (1969)

As is often the case with manufacturers, one of the most remarkable cars Mercedes ever devised was never sold to the public. In fact there were several of them, since the C 111 was a series, produced over several years. Like the 300 SL, they all had gullwing doors, but unlike the earlier production model they were mid-engined.

In most cases, the engine was a rotary of some sort, but Mercedes decided this wasn’t the way forward, and has never to this day sold a production car fitted with such a thing. Later C 111s had petrol V8s, or in one case a 3.0-litre diesel.

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Mercedes G-Wagen (1979)

Later renamed G-Class, the Geländewagen was just what it said it was (in German) – an off-road vehicle which could also be driven on ordinary public roads, though not necessarily in great comfort.

As Mercedes itself says, the new model “broke completely new ground”, but quickly found a customer base. Available in various forms, it stuck around until 1992, and was replaced by something similar. Several generations later, you can still buy a G-Class today, and an all-electric version was revealed in April 2024.

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Mercedes 190E (1982)

The W201 series consisted of the medium-sized Mercedes models immediately preceding the first C-Class. The most notable version was the 190E, especially when its 2.3-litre (and later 2.5-litre) engine was fitted with a 16-valve cylinder head developed by Cosworth.

Roughly analogous to the BMW M3, these were fine high-performance road cars, and the versions modified for competition use were deeply impressive. The most famous 190E of them all, though, was the one in which Ayrton Senna (1960-1994), new to Formula 1, beat his more experienced rivals, all of them driving similar cars, in a special race at Hockenheim in 1984.

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Mercedes C 36 AMG (1993)

AMG started out as a tuning business specialising in parts for Mercedes vehicles, and was drawn into the company over a period of years. The first road-going collaboration was the C 36 AMG, which had a 3.6-litre straight six engine.

With a maximum output of only around 280bhp, it was far less powerful than future AMG models, but it was beautifully balanced, and a pleasure to drive on either road or track.

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Mercedes SLK-Class (1996)

The original SLK was available with a variety of four-cylinder engines, sometimes supercharged, or a 3.2-litre V6. It was an unusual model for Mercedes to produce, but it did well enough for the company to decide it was worth moving on to a second generation in 2004.

When that happened, the first SLK was repurposed as the Chrysler Crossfire, an outcome of the merger of Daimler and Chrysler. The fact that one of the partners had taken on a model recently discarded by the other was controversial too.

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Mercedes V-Class (1996)

For nearly a century, it would have been almost unthinkable that Mercedes would create a passenger vehicle by adding extra seats and windows to a van. That, however, is what happened with the V-Class, the MPV version of what was otherwise known as the Vito.

Unusual though this seems, the plan worked, and there is still a V-Class today.

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Mercedes A-Class (1997)

It all happened a long time ago, but for a while it was almost impossible to have a conversation about the first-generation A-Class without someone mentioning the elk test. This has been conducted for many years by the Swedish magazine Teknikens Värld, and in 1997 the A-Class failed it spectacularly, turning over before reaching the finish line.

All talk of the little hatchback’s ingenious double-floor layout was forgotten, and the incident led to a major controversy. After much discussion, Mercedes revised the suspension and added electronic stability control and in 1998 the A-Class became capable of avoiding elks with little trouble.

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Mercedes M-Class (1997)

The M-Class was the first Mercedes crossover SUV, and was built at the company’s first American factory, located in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Despite the name of the series as a whole, individual models were named ML (plus a number indicating engine size, such as ML 230), to avoid a possibly unlikely confusion with BMW M cars.

This problem was eventually eradicated completely when a new policy led to later versions being called GLE-Class.

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Mercedes Vaneo (2001)

Mercedes described its little monospace vehicle as “a family saloon, recreational vehicle and spacious estate in one”. Although it looked like it was based on a van, it actually wasn’t (being in fact a relative of the A-Class), and Mercedes took pains to point this out, but didn’t help the situation by giving it a name whose first three letters spelled the word ‘van’.

This wasn’t the first vehicle to seem like an odd addition to the Mercedes line-up, but unlike others of which that could be said it wasn’t successful, and was withdrawn from the market in 2005.

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Maybach (2002)

Named after Wilhelm Maybach (who, you’ll remember, had left Daimler nearly a century earlier), the Maybach luxury cars were certainly the work of Mercedes even if they didn’t carry that name. The 57 and the longer-wheelbase 62 were very expensive both to buy and to own – independent research once showed that their UK values fell more in the first year after purchase than those of any other car.

The sub-brand was discontinued in 2013, but ultra-luxury models are now known as Mercedes-Maybach on models like the S-Class and GLS-Class.

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Mercedes SLR McLaren (2003)

The SLR (for Sport Leicht Rennsport, or Sport Light Racing) was named after a race car of the 1950s, and as the other part of its name suggested it was developed partly by the McLaren Group. Its supercharged 5.4-litre V8 engine, developed by AMG and producing well over 600bhp, was mounted very far back, which meant that the passenger compartment had to be even further back, giving the car a resemblance, at least in profile, to a Funny Car dragster.

“Not quite the all-conquering hypercar we had expected from two of the industry’s greats,” we said, but added, “The SLR was nevertheless a unique and intoxicating beast.”

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Mercedes R-Class (2005)

In another example of blurring the boundaries between market sectors, Mercedes combined the familiar ideas of a sporty saloon, an estate, a minivan and an SUV into the luxurious six-seat R-Class, which it described as a Grand Sports Tourer.

As such, it more or less occupied a category untouched by anyone else, though since production lasted for a dozen years there was obviously some demand for it. The 6.2-litre V8 R 63 AMG – “one of Mercedes’ crazier ideas”, we said – was perhaps a step too far, and didn’t last for long; just 200 or so R63s were sold.

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Mercedes A 45 AMG (2013)

The outstanding feature of the A 45 AMG was its turbocharged 2.0-litre engine, whose output of 355bhp (as originally launched) was the highest of any production four-cylinder unit in the world.

At around the time the car was renamed Mercedes-AMG A 45, this rose further to 376bhp. The successor to this engine, still with the same basic layout, now exceeds 400bhp.

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Mercedes G 63 AMG 6x6 (2013)

The most powerful G-Class of all has been the G 65 AMG, whose “spectacularly unnecessary twin-turbocharged 6.0-litre V12”, as we described it, produced 621bhp. In terms of craziness, though, it takes second place to the G 63 AMG 6x6, even though that vehicle’s 5.5-litre twin-turbo V8 produced a far more modest 536bhp.

As its name indicates, this one had six wheels, all of them driven. The existence of just one example would have been remarkable enough, but in fact Mercedes built and sold more than 100.

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Mercedes-Maybach S-Class (2021)

Today’s equivalent of the old Grosser Mercedes models is the top-level S-Class, a perhaps fitting tribute to the genius of Wilhelm Maybach.

Writing of the 603bhp V12 S680, we said it “delivers incredible refinement, strong performance, outstanding roadholding for such a large car, a world-class ride and a truly exclusive passenger experience”.

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Think of a large family estate car. You're picturing a Volvo, aren't you?

Although the XC90 is the Volvo de choix for big families these days, the more traditional V90 estate still holds massive appeal, having only recently bowed out of production after nearly a decade. And not just because it's one of the prettiest wagons around.

The second car to use Volvo's then-newfangled SPA platform, it arrived as a long, low and sculptural model like no Volvo estate before it - and its strong Scandi-chic design still looks clean and fresh today.

The by-product of its added kerb appeal is that it is not quite as utilitarian and practical as its breeze-block forebears - the sloping rear screen precludes the fitment of a third row of seats, for example - but the boot is still a competitive 560 litres, even in the PHEV, and four occupants have plenty of space (although a fifth makes it tighter).

For outright space, the Skoda Superb, Volkswagen Passat and Mercedes E-Class have it beat, but if you're looking for something that's in equal parts stylish, relaxing and practical, the V90 should be right up the top of your list with the Audi A6, BMW 5 Series and Jaguar XF.

The interior is family-friendly but still very stylish. All the materials look and feel expensive, and the 9.0in portrait touchscreen still looks modern, even if it can be laggy, which is grating because of the dearth of physical controls.

Equipment is generous. Even entry-level Momentum trim has LED headlights, heated leather seats, sat-nav, Bluetooth, adaptive cruise control, lane keep assist and DAB radio. On top of that, it has a powered bootlid, keyless start and rear parking sensors.

Used Inscription cars cost about 10% more than like-for-like Momentum models and get extra interior lighting, nappa leather seats and a larger, 12.3in digital instrument cluster, plus electric front seats and bigger alloys.

R-Design models have held their value best and offer firmer suspension for a sportier drive - but bear in mind that the V90 is very much a wafty and hushed cruiser, especially on adaptive dampers, and the R-Design's big wheels and stiffer dampers do unsettle the ride.

Handling is good across the board, though. The V90 has an encouraging level of body control for its size and supple set-up so can be briskly hustled along a twisty road.

All powertrains are based around a 2.0-litre engine, initially the 187bhp T4 petrol or D4 diesel, the 232bhp D5 or 247bhp T5, or the top-link 306bhp T6. The highest-power petrol and diesel came with four-wheel drive, but they have a poorer reliability record, so we would recommend the torquey D4 (expect mid-40s to the gallon) or pokey T5 (around 30mpg). The T4 is gutless and no more efficient than a T5.

All V90s are automatic, which is generally fine but early cars can be a bit jerky and hesitant.

If you have a home charger and are tempted by the blisteringly quick 401bhp T8 PHEV, note that there are well-documented problems and you'll get only 20 miles of EV running on a good day.

The V90 is a useful tow car, with the D5 and T6 rated for 2200kg and even the PHEVs being capable of pulling 2100kg. It's a workhorse, then, like all good Volvo estates have been, but with the tech and panache to slip into premium exec duties effortlessly. What more can you ask of a car that starts at £8k?

What to look out for

Engine: The high-output D5 (later B5) and T6 (later B6) use Volvo's PowerPulse compressed air system to spool the turbos quickly, reducing lag. Failure of the air compressor or associated hoses in this system is an occasional fault, leading to a loss of immediate performance, and can be expensive to fix.

Electric motor: Owners of plug-in hybrid T8s have reported a systemic issue with the 'ERAD', or EV motor, on the rear axle. These often fail after the warranty expires and £10,000 should be budgeted to fix it. So have it thoroughly checked out before purchase.

Suspension: Higher trims often feature rear or full air suspension. While it provides a superb, floaty ride and self-levelling, the air springs and compressors are prone to leaks and failure over time. Look for the car sitting unevenly when parked, and check for suspension warning messages on the dash. Volvo refuses to cover the system in extended warranties.

Body: The optional panoramic sunroof's drain tubes can become clogged with debris, causing water to accumulate and potentially leak into the cabin or damage the electronic modules located near the headliner.

Infotainment: The touchscreen has a tendency to lag and there are very few buttons to fall back on. Total crashes are usually solved by turning it off and on again. V90s from 2016 and 2017 need a 3G sim to offer wi-fi. Coverage will soon end, so if this bothers you, choose a newer model.

Also worth knowing

The V90 was facelifted in 2020 with some small but important changes. The petrol Ts and Ds became Bs, with the addition of mild-hybrid technology, which doesn't make the world of difference to economy or performance but it's nice to have if your budget stretches.

The hybrid line-up expanded, with a new 335bhp T6 offering a claimed 35 miles of EV range initially, before being upgraded with a new battery to 53 miles in 2022. The T8 also received this and a bump in power to 449bhp. Note that without any electrical assistance, the PHEVs will struggle to break 35mpg.

Core, Plus and Ultimate replaced the previous trim levels.

How much to spend 

£8000-£12,999 Cars with over 100k miles and some with more than double that.

£13,000-£19,999 A range of pre-facelifted cars, from Momentums with average miles to top-spec, low-mile T8s.

£20,000-£32,999 A wide choice of facelifted models, including the last of the mild-hybrid petrols and diesels.

£33,000-£55,000 Plug-in hybrids from the last few years of production.

An owner's view

Sarah Hughes: "I ran a D4 R-Design for three years and 60,000 miles. For a car of its size, the economy was strong, hitting high-40s on a motorway run. The comfort is the biggest selling point: I've never sat in a better seat. The Pilot Assist [adaptive cruise and steering] made motorway journeys easy and the overall interior design and quality are hard to beat. Nothing broke, although the Sensus infotainment did occasionally have a 'Matrix moment' where it just froze and needed a restart to clear. My biggest gripe was the gearbox; it was often dim-witted and hesitant when pulling away."